Homer, the Iliad
Recommended ResourcesThemes and Essential Questions |
You may find the following resources helpful in our study of the Iliad:
Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narratives, Chapter Two: The Iliad - available on Ebrary In the Iliad, Heroes such as Achilles and Agamemnon can only gain the honor and glory that they see as their due at the expense of the community. Look for examples throughout the Iliad of the tension between the individual and the community. Which do you think the Greeks valued more?
What makes a hero a hero in Homer? What are the power dynamics between the gods on Olympus? How do they interact with one another? What role does Zeus play? How does Zeus’s role differ from that of the other gods? Does Zeus have a “side” in the conflict? How do the lives of the gods mirror the lives of the Greeks and the Trojans? What role do the bodies of the dead play? Why are there so many battles over bodies? Why are the bodies important? What does the Iliad suggest about human and divine authority? (Think about the figures of Agamemnon and Zeus.) What roles do human women play in the Iliad? Is there free will in the world of the Iliad? Why do men fight? |
Characters to KnowNote the epithets / descriptors used for each character.
Peleus Thetis Achilles The Myrmidons Agamemnon Menelaus Odysseus Nestor Patroclus Great / Telamonian Ajax Little / Locrian Ajax Diomedes Briseis Chryseis Priam Hector Paris Aeneas Anchises Sarpedon Helen Hecuba Astyanax Andromache Zeus Athena Poseidon Aphrodite Hera Apollo Hephaestus Ares |
Book 1 |
Lines 1-16: Achilles’ rage is the central conflict of the Iliad that must be resolved. What is the source of Achilles’ rage?
Why will Achilles’ rage cost the Greeks so much? How would you characterize Achilles vs. Agamemnon? The rank and file soldiers vs. the heroes? In line 61, Achilles is set up as the voice of the masses, but is he? Why does Achilles need to protect Calchas from Agamemnon? How do the men perceive / act towards Agamemnon and Achilles? Note in line 112 Agamemnon’s response to Calchas and the importance of the prize. In line 181 Achilles says that he is “unhonored” – why? What does he do in response? Why does Agamemnon take Briseis? What is Achilles’ response? In line 269, why is it a “sad day for Greece”? What is Nestor’s advice to Agamemnon? To Achilles? Does either take his advice? What does Achilles want Thetis to ask Zeus for? What is Achilles doing while the army sacrifices to Apollo? |
Book 2 |
How long has the war gone on? Why?
How does Agamemnon test the men? What does Thersites say about Agamemnon in lines 245-261? Why does Odysseus defend Agamemnon? |
Book 3 |
Here we are introduced to Paris and Hector – what are we meant to think about each of these characters?
Why doesn’t the battle between Paris and Menelaus work? How does Helen talk about herself? How does Helen recognize Aphrodite? How has Aphrodite interfered in Helen’s life? How are Paris and Helen regarded by the Trojans? |
Book 4 |
Here, we see the gods in an assembly on Olympus – what are they discussing? What is the outcome of this assembly?
How do the gods interact with one another, especially Hera and Zeus? How does Agamemnon interact with his troops? |
Book 5 |
Book 5 is the beginning of Diomedes’ “aristeia”, or his chance to be the hero of the day.
“Pallas Athena now gave to Diomedes, Tydeus’ son, the strength and courage that would make him shine among the Greeks and give him glory.” Note the fight between Diomedes and Aphrodite – why does he fight with a god? How does he treat her? How do the other gods treat Aphrodite? In line 321, why is Aeneas afraid that the Greeks might drag Pandarus’ body away? |
Book 6 |
Take note of the exchange between Diomedes and Glaucus – why do they act this way?
Starting in line 328, what is the contrast between Hector and Paris? Line 420: How does Andromache feel about the war and Hector’s role in it? What problems did women face in the ancient world? What are the roles of women vs. men? Are the stakes greater for the Trojans or the Greeks? Why? |
Book 7 |
Note the fight between Hector and Ajax. Why do Ajax and Hector exchange gifts at the conclusion of their fight?
How do the Greeks treat their dead? Why does Paris refuse to give Helen back to the Greeks? Do you think that this would have resolved the conflict? |
Book 8 |
Yet another assembly on Olympus… How does Zeus demonstrate his dominance over the other gods, especially Hera and Athena?
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Book 9 |
Here we see a second Assembly - what roles do Assemblies play in the Iliad?
Why does Diomedes oppose Agamemnon? What does Agamemnon offer Achilles? Why? Why does Achilles refuse Agamemnon’s offer? In lines 424 - 429, what choice is Achilles faced with? In lines 509 - 512, what advice does Phoenix give to Achilles? Honor is a recurring theme - what type of honor are they talking about? Do they all mean the same thing when they talk about honor? What message does Achilles send to Agamemnon? Why does Diomedes rebuke Agamemnon at the end of this book? |
Book 10 |
What is going on overnight at the Greek and Trojan camps?
How do Agamemnon and Hector communicate with their respective troops? Why are the Greeks successful at their nighttime maneuvers and the Trojans unsuccessful? |
Book 11 |
In the exchange between Diomedes and Paris starting on line 408, how are the bow and arrow characterized versus other weapons. Why?
Starting in line 700, Nestor tells Patroclus his opinion of Achilles. What does he think of Achilles and why? What does he want Patroclus to do? What idea does he put in his head? |
Book 12 |
What role does Polydamas play?
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Book 13 |
Why does Poseidon disobey Zeus? Why does he seem resentful of Zeus?
In lines 360-361, how does victory for Hector and the Trojans “honor” Achilles? In line 853, why does Ajax say that “it was Zeus who whipped us before”? |
Book 14 |
How does Hera distract Zeus? Why? How does she deceive him?
What forces can (temporarily anyway) best Zeus? |
Book 15 |
How does Zeus react when he learns of Hera’s deception?
In lines 51 - 78, Zeus tells us what is going to happen. Why are these things going to happen, and why does he tell us? (hello, spoilers!) Starting in line 106, how does Hera describe Zeus to the other gods? In lines 176 to 221, Iris convinces Poseidon to stand down. How does she do so? Why does Poseidon continue to defy Zeus? What should we make of these two competing stories of how Zeus received his authority, whether it was by lottery or by age? Ultimately Poseidon gives Zeus (by way of Iris) an ultimatum - Zeus must destroy Troy. Why does he do this? How do you think Zeus will react? In lines 504 - 530, How does Hector motivate the Trojans? How does Ajax motivate the Greeks? How are these two speeches different, and why? What do they tell us about the Trojan versus the Greek forces? |
Book 16 |
What does Patroclus think of Achilles’ honor?
Why is Patroclus described as “like a child begging for a toy” in lines 49-50? Why does Achilles agree to let Patroclus join the fight while wearing Achilles’ armor? In lines 93-94 Achilles tells Patroclus that “Any success you have against the Trojans will be at the expense of my honor” and “You come back where you belong”. What do you make of these statements? What do they tell us about the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus? Why is the death of Sarpedon significant? Why doesn’t Zeus save Sarpedon, as it seems he wants to? What does this tell us about Zeus’s power? Why does Patroclus press on towards the city walls, even though Achilles told him not to? How is Patroclus killed? Who killed him? What does Hector say to Patroclus before he dies? Why? Starting in line 885, who does Patroclus see as responsible for his death? Do you agree? |
Book 17 |
Why do Menelaus, Ajax, and the other Greeks fight so hard to make sure that the Trojans do not take Patroclus’s body?
What plans does Hector have for the body? Starting in line 138, Glaucus challenges Hector. Why? Why does Hector put on Achilles’ armor? In lines 199 - 207, what does Zeus think of Hector putting on Achilles’ armor? Why does Zeus feel sorry for Achilles’ horses? |
Book 18 |
How does Achilles react when he finds out that Patroclus is dead?
Starting in line 55, Thetis laments her situation to her sisters. What does she lament? How is Thetis a victim here? When Achilles speaks to Thetis starting in line 82, how has he changed his opinion? In lines 100-101 Thetis tells Achilles “I won’t have you with me for long, my child, if you say such things. Hector’s death means yours.” What does she mean by this? What choice must Achilles make? Does Achilles regret his decisions? Why? A recurring theme in Greek mythology is hubris - the idea that we humans know more than or can control the gods. How has Achilles demonstrated hubris, and what price has he paid for it? Why is losing his armor such a big deal? Starting in line 335, the Greeks mourn Patroclus. How do they mourn him? How does Achilles lament him? What does this tell us about how the Greeks saw the physical body? Analyze the symbolism of the illustrations on the new shield that Hephaestus makes for Achilles. |
Book 19 |
Patroclus may be dead, but Achilles continues to worry about him - why? What does he ask Thetis to do?
Yet another assembly - why does Achilles call an assembly? What do you make of his speech to Agamemnon in lines 68 - 85? How has his attitude changed? “But the Greeks? I think they will remember our quarrel forever.” Why? Achilles says that there is no longer any need for him to rage relentlessly, but has his rage really been satisfied? How does Agamemnon respond to Achilles’ speech? Who does he blame for everything that has happened? What do you think of Achilles' statement in lines 288-293? Why does Achilles reject the society of his comrades, first in the form of the Assembly, and second by refusing to eat? What significance does this have? This is the only time that we actually see Briseis speak in the Iliad - why? Why does she speak now? Why does she mourn Patroclus? How is she described? What do we learn about her background? Compare Briseis' speech to her letter in Ovid's Heroides - how are they similar and different? How is Achilles described as he is arming himself for battle? At the end of the book, who do the horses blame for Patroclus' death? Why Apollo and not Zeus? |
Book 20 |
Achilles is described as "the vortex of war" in line 2 - why? How is Achilles described throughout Book 20, and how does it differ from earlier descriptions?
Why does Zeus assemble the gods? How do the assemblies on Olympus mirror the assemblies in the Greek camp? What role do the gods play in the battle? Is this the same role that we have seen throughout the Iliad, or is it different somehow? In line 140, Poseidon tells Hera to "Leave the war to men." What do you make of this? lines 249-250 "But Zeus gives men their worth, or lessens it, as he wills, since he is strongest of all." Why doesn't Achilles kill Aeneas? Why does Hera decline to intervene? |
Book 21 |
What does Achilles say to Lycaon before he kills him? How has the death of Patroclus changed Achilles? Why?
“I too am in death’s shadow. There will come a time, some dawn or evening or noon in this war, when someone will take my life from me with a spear thrust or an arrow from a string.” Has Achilles accepted his own death? Starting in line 193, Achilles says that he is a son of Zeus – why? Have we encountered this before? |
Book 22 |
How do you think Priam feels about everything that has happened? Why does he reappear now?
In his speech to Hector, Priam foreshadows what will happen after Troy falls. Why? Why does Priam beg Hector not to face Achilles? What happened to all of the other Greek heroes? In previous books, even if one hero was on a roll (like Diomedes or Patroclus) we would hear about them working together – why not with Achilles? Starting in line 111, we FINALLY get to the big showdown between Hector and Achilles. Why does Zeus waver in line 190? Why does Athena rebuke him? What oath does Hector want to swear with Achilles? Why? Why does Achilles refuse? Starting in line 363, what does Achilles say to Hector? What does he have planned for Hector? Note that just before his death, Hector foreshadows Achilles’ own death at the hands of Apollo and Paris. Hmmmm…… When was the last time we saw Paris anyway? Why do you think that is? What’s he off doing? How do the Trojans react to the death of Hector? Why? What is Andromache doing while Hector is killed? Why? What does Andromache see in the future for herself and Astayanax with Hector dead? |
Book 23 |
In Book 23, now that Achilles has dispatched Hector, he can finally mourn Patroclus and honor him with appropriate funeral rites. What does that entail?
Until now, Achilles has always been the son of Peleus, but now (in line 33) he is referred to as Aeacus’ swift grandson – why? In Achilles’ dream, what is the spirit of Patroclus afraid of? What instructions does he give Achilles? What is the significance of Achilles shearing off his hair and placing it in Patroclus’ hands? While Achilles is taking care of Patroclus, what is happening (or not happening) to Hector’s body? Contests of athletic games were often held to honor the dead, as we see happen here in Book 23. The contests held here are provide a good description of those held at the ancient Olympic Games. (For more on the ancient Olympics and Book 23, check out the Olympics episodes of the Ancient Art Podcast.) Before, Achilles was enraged because his prize was taken away – now he gives generously of all the loot he has accumulated. Why? How do the various heroes interact during the contests? Is this similar to or different from the way that they have interacted throughout the Iliad? Why do you think that is? At the end of Book 23, Achilles aborts the javelin contest, and declares Agamemnon the winner without his actually competing – why? |
Book 24 |
What is the focus of Achilles’ rage now?
Why can Hector and Achilles not have the same honor? What plan do the gods devise to deal with Hector’s body? Why does Achilles agree to this plan? How is Priam able to safely travel into the Greek camp? Starting in line 520, Priam makes his plea to Achilles. What rhetorical strategy does he use? Is this successful? Does it matter, since the gods have already told him that he has to accept the ransom and give Hector’s body back? How does Achilles feel about his father, Peleus? Achilles says “It’s my own decision to release Hector to you.” Is it? Why or why not? Why does Achilles imagine Patroclus would disagree with his decision? Why does Achilles negotiate an armistice with Priam? How do you think Agamemnon will feel about this? Ultimately, what put an end to Achilles’ rage? Starting in line 777, Andromache once again foreshadows the fate of the women and children of Troy. Why does Helen lament Hector? What role does her speech play? We talked about the significance of the first few lines of the Iliad, and in particular the very first word, which sets out the central conflict of the poem – rage, namely, Achilles’ rage. What do you make of the significance of the last words, then: “That was the funeral of Hector, breaker of horses.”? |